Within MERCURY, a glossary of multilateralism has been created. The glossary includes understandings of multilateralism over time from different academic disciplines, different political backgrounds and different places in the world. On the right hand side, you can find an alphabetical list of all glossary terms and related authors. Click on the terms to access the full definition.

Obviously, the glossary is work in progress. During MERCURY's lifetime, partners will continue to collect relevant terms for the glossary. Please feel free to make additional proposals for the glossary! If you want to contribute, please send the term, the definition and the source to  contact@mercury-fp7.net.

Term	'Alliance of Democratic States'
Author	Daalder, Ivo & Lindsay, James
Year	2004
Academic Discipline	-
Political Statement	-
Geographic / Institutional Basis	USA/ Brookings, Institution & Council on Foreign Relations
Source	Daalder, Ivo H. & Lindsay, James M.. 2004. "An Alliance of Democracies: Our Way or the Highway", Brokkings Institution Opinions, www.brookings.edu/opinions/2004/0523globalgovernance_daalder.aspx
Citation	“The solution must lie in creating a formal Alliance of Democracies. Such an organisation would address the main US criticism of institutional multilateralism—that it gives countries implacably hostile to American values a say in its foreign policy.”
Explanation	This idea builds on the theory of democratic peace. In the same spirit, a loosely bound ‘Community of Democracies’ was founded in Warsaw in 2000 (Warsaw Declaration) initiated by the U.S and signed by over 100 states. In 2008, as the Republican Presidential nominee, John McCain endorsed this idea and proposed the founding of a ‘League of Democracies’, thus reopening a debate that has defined US foreign policy since the time of Woodrow Wilson and the U.S. entry into WWI in 1917 ‘making the world safer for democracies’.

Term	ASEAN way
Author	Acharya, Amitav
Year	2002
Academic Discipline	Diplomacy; negotiation
Political Statement	-
Geographic / Institutional Basis	Asia
Source	Acharya, Amitav. 2001. Constructing a security community in South East Asia: ASEAN and the problem of regional order, London: Routledge.
Citation	“a ‘process of regional interactions and cooperation based on discreteness, informality, consensus building and non-confrontational bargaining styles’ that contrasts with ‘the adversarial posturing, majority vote and other legalistic decision-making procedures in Western multilateral organizations’” (p. 63)
Explanation	In his analysis, Acharya refers to Lee Kim Chew’s article “Asean Unity Showing Signs of Fraying”, published in the Straits Times on 23 July 1998 (p. 30).

Term	Bi-multilateralism
Author	Smith, Michael and Xie, Huaixian
Year	2009
Academic Discipline	Political Science
Political Statement	-
Geographic / Institutional Basis
Source	Smith, Michael H. and Huaixian Xie. 2009. "The European Union, China and the United States: 'Complex Interdependence' and Bi-Multilateralism' in Commercial Relations." Paper prepared for presentation at the 50th Annual Convention of the International Studies Association, New York, 15-18 February 2009.
Citation	“[…] at the same time, […] the EU-China-US relationship is central to power, institutions and norms in the changing multilateral commercial system, centred on the World Trade Organisation. This means that many of the commercial policy negotiations between the three parties are essentially ‘bi-multilateral’: on the one hand, the management of bilateral relations creates externalities for the multilateral system, and on the other hand the evolution of the multilateral system creates new forces shaping the management of bilateral relationships.” (p. 2)
Explanation	-

Term	Coalition of the willing / Coalition of nations
Author	Bush, George W. (junior)
Year	2002
Academic Discipline	-
Political Statement	Press conference ahead of the NATO summit in Prague
Geographic / Institutional Basis	USA
Source	Bush: Join 'coalition of willing', cnn.com, 20.11.2002 edition.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/europe/11/20/prague.bush.nato/
Citation	"However, should [Saddam Hussein] choose not to disarm, the United States will lead a coalition of the willing to disarm him and at that point in time, all our nations ... will be able choose whether or not they want to participate."
Explanation	The term “coalition of the willing” is a political expression used from the 1990s onwards to describe an ad-hoc group of states intervening at the international level outside the framework of established international organisations. It is best known by George W. Bush in the context of the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq in March 2003. In George W. Bush’s speeches at the UN General Assembly, he used the term “coalition forces” (2002) or “coalition of nations” (2001, 2003, 2005, 2008). See United Nations General Assembly Documents at www.un.org/ga/.

Term	Conference Diplomacy
Author	Berridge, Geoffrey R.
Year	2005
Academic Discipline	International Relations
Political Statement	-
Geographic / Institutional Basis
Source	Berridge, G.R. 2005. Diplomacy. Theory and practice, 3rd edition. New York: Palgrave.
Citation	“[Conference diplomacy] is subject-focused and thus concentrates minds on one issue or series of related issues. It brings together all the parties whose agreement is necessary. It encourages informality. Its members may even develop a certain esprit de corps.” (p. 153)
Explanation	-

Term	Effective Partnership
Author	European Commission
Year	2001
Academic Discipline	-
Political Statement	Communication from the European Commission
Geographic / Institutional Basis	European Union
Source	Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament: Building an Effective Partnership with the United Nations in the Fields of Development and Humanitarian Affairs, 2.5.2001 COM(2001)231.
Citation	“Improving co-operation with the UN is a major priority to the EU, to its Member States and to the European Commission. […] The Commission considers that a first step in the direction of a more effective partnership could be taken by enhancing collaboration in the fields of development and humanitarian affairs. […] The Commission is convinced that the quality and impact of EC development and humanitarian policies and activities can be improved by better clarifying what the Community’s role should be in the UN context and what it suggests to contribute to the multilateral system. That positive impact can however only be achieved if on the other hand the Commission specifies what it expects from the partners in the United Nations system.” (p. 2)
Explanation	For an analysis of the proclaimed “effective partnership” between the European Union and the United Nations see for example Taylor, Paul. 2008. The End of European Integration: Anti-Europeanism Examined. Routledge: Oxon and New York (p. 110-111).

Term	Harmonious world
Author	Hu Jintao
Year	2007
Academic Discipline	-
Political Statement	Report to the Seventeenth National Congress of the Communist Party of China on Oct. 15, 2007.
Geographic / Institutional Basis	China
Source	Hu Jintao, Report to the Seventeenth National Congress of the Communist Party of China on Oct. 15, 2007, www.china.org.cn/english/congress/229611.htm
Citation	“[All countries should uphold the purposes and principles of the United Nations Charter, observe international law and universally recognized norms of international relations, and promote democracy, harmony, collaboration and win-win solutions in international relations. Politically, all countries should respect each other and conduct consultations on an equal footing in a common endeavour to promote democracy in international relations. Economically, they should cooperate with each other; draw on each other's strengths and work together to advance economic globalization in the direction of balanced development, shared benefits and win-win progress. Culturally, they should learn from each other in the spirit of seeking common ground while shelving differences, respect the diversity of the world, and make joint efforts to advance human civilization. In the area of security, they should trust each other, strengthen cooperation, settle international disputes by peaceful means rather than by war, and work together to safeguard peace and stability in the world. On environmental issues, they should assist and cooperate with each other in conservation efforts to take good care of the Earth, the only home of human beings.…].”
Explanation	The term was first coined in April 2005 during the Asia-Africa summit commemorating the 50th anniversary of the Bandung conference to propose renewed cooperation between the regions appearing subsequently in Hu’s speech at the UN later that year. The reference here is however the most comprehensive articulation so far.

Term	Inclusive multipartite institutions
Author	Rittberger, Volker
Year	2008
Academic Discipline	Political Science; regime theories
Political Statement	-
Geographic / Institutional Basis	Germany
Source	Rittberger, Volker. 2008. “Global Governance: From ‘Exclusive’ Executive Multilateralism to Inclusive Multipartite Institutions,” Tübinger Arbeitspapiere zur Internationalen Politik und Friedensforschung, no 52.
Citation	Inclusive multipartite institutions are …”institutions in which public as well as private actors are endowed with membership and participatory rights.” (p. 3)
Explanation	Examples of inclusive multipartite institutions are UNAIDS and the Kimberley Process, in which non-state actors are members.

Term	Interregionalism
Author	Hänggi, Heiner/ Roloff, Ralf and Rüland, Jürgen
Year	2006
Academic Discipline	Political Science; primary theoretical school: constructivism
Political Statement	-
Geographic / Institutional Basis	Europe
Source	Hänggi, Heiner/ Roloff, Ralf and Rüland, Jürgen (eds). 2006. Interregionalism and International Relations. London: Routledge.
Citation	Interregionalism is defined “as a process of widening and deepening political, economic, and societal interactions between international regions.” (p. 18)
Explanation	The use of the term “interregionalism” is a relatively recent dating from about the year 2005. It’s study is related to that of the study of the European Union as a global actor in a number of edited volumes (see also Fredrik Söderbaum and Luk van Langenhove (eds). 2006. The EU as a Global Player: The Politics of Interregionalism. London: Routledge). No studies exist of “interregionalism” between a regional entity outside Europe and another regional entity outside Europe. Interregionalism is not so much a means employed by the EU as a global actor but, rather a normative objective or to use the classic distinction of Arnold Wolfers a “milieu goal” that is one designed to shape conditions of functioning beyond national boundaries.

Term	Minilateralism
Author	Mastanduno, Michael
Year	2005
Academic Discipline	Political Science
Political Statement	-
Geographic / Institutional Basis	USA
Source	Mastanduno, Michael. 2005. "US foreign policy and the pragmatic use of international institutions.", in: Australian Journal of International Affairs 59(3):317-333.
Citation	“Multilateralism and minilateralism in the form of ad hoc coalitions have helped to soften US hegemony by giving other states some say in initiatives taken by the United States that directly affect their security.” (p. 323)
Explanation	-

Term	Minilateralism
Author	Naím, Moisés
Year	2009
Academic Discipline	Political Science and Economics
Political Statement	-
Geographic / Institutional Basis	USA
Source	Naím, Moisés. 2009. “Think Small to Tackle the World’s Biggest Problems”, Financial Times, 19 June (UK edition): 13.
Citation	“So what is to be done? To start, we should forget about trying to get the nearly 200 countries to agree. We need to abandon that fool’s errand in favour of a new approach: minilateralism. By this I mean a smarter, more targeted approach. We should bring to the table the smallest possible number of countries needed to have the largest possible impact on solving a particular problem. Think of this as minilateralism’s magic number.”
Explanation	See also Naím, Moisés. 2009. ‘Minilateralism. The magic number to get real international action’ Foreign Policy, July/August 2009. www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2009/06/18/minilateralism

Term	multilateral
Author	Draper, Peter
Year	2001
Academic Discipline	International Political Economy
Political Statement	-
Geographic / Institutional Basis	South Africa/South African Institute for International Affairs
Source	Draper, Peter. 2001. Reviewing multilateral organisations in the Asia-Pacific region. In Multilateral organisations in the Asia-Pacific. Lessons and experiences for Southern Africa, edited by M. Glinzler, W. Mabena & G. Mills. Johannesburg: SAIIA.
Citation	“Multilateral – a simple definition is that this is a grouping of three or more countries organised around a particular issue or set of institution. However, in the Department of Trade and Industry [of South Africa] we employ another term that can be synonymous with this definition: ‘regional’. A regional arrangement can of course be multilateral, but for purposes of analytical clarity we prefer to classify multilateral arrangements at the regional level as regional. Thus we reserve the term multilateral for global institutional arrangements.” (p.1)
Explanation	-

Term	Multilateralism
Author	Clark, Ian
Year	2001
Academic Discipline	Political Science
Political Statement	-
Geographic / Institutional Basis	USA
Source	Clark, Ian. 2001. Globalization and the post-cold war order, in: The Globalization of World Politics. An introduction to international relations, eds. John Baylis & Steve Smith, Oxford University Press.
Citation	“Multilateralism: the tendency for functional aspects of international relations (such as security, trade or environmental management) to be organized around large numbers of states, or universally, rather than by unilateral state action.” (p. 730)
Explanation	-

Term	Multilateralism
Author	Ikenberry, G. John
Year	2003
Academic Discipline	Political Science
Political Statement	-
Geographic / Institutional Basis	USA / Princeton University
Source	Ikenberry, G. John. 2003. “Is American Multilateralism in Decline?”, Perspectives on Politics, Vol. 1, no.3: 533-550.
Citation	“Multilateralism involves the coordination of relations among three or more states according to a set of rules or principles. It can be distinguished from other types of interstate relations in three ways. First, because it entails the coordination of relations among a group of states, it can be contrasted with bilateral, “hub and spoke,” and imperial arrangements. Second, the terms of a given relationship are defined by agreed-upon rules and principles— and sometimes by organizations—so multilateralism can be contrasted with interactions based on ad hoc bargaining or straightforward power politics. Third, multilateralism entails some reduction in policy autonomy, since the choices and actions of the participating states are—at least to some degree—constrained by the agreed-upon rules and principles. Multilateralism can operate at three levels of international order: system multilateralism, ordering or foundational multilateralism, and contract multilateralism.” (p.534)
Explanation	Ikenberry identifies different types of multilateralism at three levels of international order: system multilateralism, foundational (or ‘ordering’) multilateralism, and contract multilateralism. System multilateralism refers to multilateral relations between states based on sovereignty, mutual recognition and formal equality. It is governed by legal and diplomatic practices. The second type, foundational, involves the organization of a regional or international order based on certain specific principles. This type of multilateralism occurs at an intermediate level. It includes some, but not all, states in the international order. It has an indivisible character: all must play by agreed rules and there are means for enforcing them. Third and finally, contract multilateralism is the loosest of the three versions. It may entail formal agreements among groups of states, such as treaties. But it works mainly on the basis of unwritten or qualified rules and norms.

Term	Multilateralism
Author	Keohane, Robert
Year	2006
Academic Discipline	Political Science; primary theoretical school: liberal institutionalism
Political Statement	-
Geographic / Institutional Basis	USA
Source	Keohane, Robert O. 2006. "The contingent legitimacy of multilateralism." In Multilateralism under challenge? Power, international order, and structural change, eds. Edward Newmann, Ramesh Thakur and John Tirman. Tokyo: United Nations University Press.
Citation	“[…] conceives of multilateralism as institutionalized collective action by an inclusively determined set of independent states. Truly multilateral organizations are open to all states meeting specific criteria. The rules of multilateral organizations are publicly known and persist over a substantial period of time.” (p. 56)
Explanation	Keohane’s definition of multilateralism was first formulated in: Keohane, Robert 0. 1990. "Multilateralism: An Agenda for Research." International Journal 45: 731-64.

Term	Multilateralism
Author	Martin, Lisa
Year	1992
Academic Discipline	Political Science; primary theoretical school: Rational Choice
Political Statement	-
Geographic / Institutional Basis	USA
Source	Martin, Lisa L. 1992. “Interests, Power, and Multilateralism”, International Organization, vol.46, no.4 (Autumn), pp765-792.
Citation	“Multilateralism is used here as a metric by which to pursue gauge patterns of interaction, not as a normative standard. Thus, claims that multilateralism is not efficient under some conditions does not imply that states refuse to cooperate; rather, such claims imply only that alternative architectures will promote international cooperation more efficiently under those conditions.” (p. 767)
Explanation	Martin treats multilateralism as a means and not a goal, opening up the possibility that alternative ways will perhaps be superior to this form of cooperation/organisation depending on the area of cooperation.

Term	Multilateralism
Author	MERCURY project partners
Year	2009
Academic Discipline	-
Political Statement	-
Geographic / Institutional Basis	-
Source	Bouchard, Caroline and John Peterson. 2009. "Conceptualising Multilateralism", MERCURY Working Paper, prepared for the MERCURY Joint Workshop, Cologne, 9-10 July 2009.
Citation	“Multilateralism is three or more actors engaging in voluntary and (more or less) institutionalised cooperation governed by norms and principles, with rules that apply (more or less) equally to all.” (p. 7)
Explanation	The MERCURY working definition of "multilateralism" was discussed among the MERCURY partners at the beginning of the project in 2009 and subsequently integrated into the conceptual MERCURY working papers.

Term	Multilateralism
Author	Ruggie, John Gerard
Year	1992
Academic Discipline	Political Science; primary theoretical school: constructivism
Political Statement	-
Geographic / Institutional Basis	USA
Source	Ruggie, John Gerard. 1993. "Multilateralism: The Anatomy of an Institution." In Multilateralism Matters. The Theory and Praxis of an Institutional Form, ed. John Gerard Ruggie. New York: Columbia University Press.
Citation	“multilateralism is a form that coordinates relations among three or more states on the basis of generalized principles of conduct” (p. 11)
Explanation	According to Ruggie, multilateralism is distinguished from other forms of international relations by three properties: (a) indivisibility among the members of a collectivity, (b) generalised principles of conduct, and (c) diffuse reciprocity, meaning a rough equivalence of benefits for the members of a multilateral institution in the aggregate and over time (cf. Ruggie 1993: 11-12).

Term	Advanced executive multilateralism
Author	Rittberger, Volker
Year	2008
Academic Discipline	Political Science; regime thoeries
Political Statement	-
Geographic / Institutional Basis	-
Source	Rittberger, Volker. 2008. “Global Governance: From ‘Exclusive’ Executive Multilateralism to Inclusive Multipartite Institutions,” Tübinger Arbeitspapiere zur Internationalen Politik und Friedensforschung, no. 52.
Citation	Advanced executive multilateralism…”derives from the charter of the international organization granting non-state actors formal access to deliberative and decision-making bodies.” (p. 3)
Explanation	Examples of advanced executive multilateralism are UN-ECOSOC and the World Bank, in which non-state actors have consultative status.

Term	Aspirant multilateralism
Author	Peterson, John/ Aspinwall, Mark/ Damro, Chad & Boswell, Christina
Year	2008
Academic Discipline	Political Science
Political Statement	-
Geographic / Institutional Basis	European Union/ UK/ University of Edinburgh
Source	Peterson, J., Aspinwall, M., Damro, C. and Boswell, C. 2008. The Consequences of Europe: Multilateralism and the New Security Agenda, Europa Institute Mitchell Working Paper, Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh, Europa Institute, 3/08, www.law.ed.ac.uk/mitchellworkingpapers/papers.aspx.
Citation	“In aspirant multilateralism, norms inform foreign policy behaviour in the absence of any formally-codified rules or even the prospect of establishing them (such as on child labour or foreign investment).” (p.8)
Explanation	-

Term	Assertive multilateralism
Author	Albright, Madeleine K.
Year	1993
Academic Discipline	-
Political Statement	Presidential Review Directive-13 (PRD-13)
Geographic / Institutional Basis	USA
Source	Presidential Review Directive-13 (PRD-13)
Citation	“The US should pursue assertive multilateralism by increasing its reliance on international institutions, rules and partnerships …the United States might better manage transnational problems, spread the burdens of world leadership, win legitimacy for its goals and actions, and consolidate the expanding community of free market democracies.”
Explanation	Albright coined the term ‘assertive multilateralism’ while she served as US ambassador to the UN. She used the term to describe the Clinton Administration's practice of joining U.S. forces with United Nations troops and supporting a more ambitious UN agenda. For Albright's use of the term "assertive multilateralism" see also hearings of the House Subcommittee on International Security, International Organizations, and Human Rights of the Committee of Foreign Affairs in 1993: ia311024.us.archive.org/0/items/usparticipationi1994unit/usparticipationi1994unit_bw.pdf

Term	Assertive multilateralism
Author	Giddens, Anthony
Year	2007
Academic Discipline	European Studies
Political Statement	-
Geographic / Institutional Basis	UK / former director of London School of Economics and fellow of King’s College, Cambridge
Source	Giddens, Anthony. 2007. Europe in the Global Age. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Citation	“The EU should adopt a stance of what one could call assertive multilateralism – an approach which stresses the importance of international law, negotiation and reconciliation, but recognises that the threat of use of force may be necessary to back them up. Multilateralism is rarely an all-or-nothing thing. There will only be infrequent occasions where the majority of nations in the world see eye to eye” (p. 226).
Explanation	Giddens (2007: 199 – 230) mentions that the EU should follow a policy of assertive multilateralism in a discussion on the future of the European Union.

Term	Closed functional multilateralism
Author	Krause, Joachim
Year	200
Academic Discipline	Political science; primary theoretical school: realism
Political Statement	-
Geographic / Institutional Basis	Germany
Source	Krause, Joachim. 2008. "The Crisis of Multilateralism.” European Liberal Forum. Helsinki. www.isuk.org/1/wp-content/uploads/2009/06/crisisofmultilateralism_2008-06-16.pdf
Citation	“[Forms of closed functional multilateralism] have been developed as instruments to seek opportunities for international co-operation when open multilateralism has failed to yield results. NATO is a typical case in kind. Closed multilateralism often takes the form of directorates or a cartel. Typical examples are the Group of Seven (G7) and Group of Eight (G8), the various contact groups and the various export-control re-gimes (including the Nuclear Suppliers Group [NSG], Australia Group, Missile Technology Control Regime [MTCR] and the Wassenaar Arrangement). As a rule, closed functional forms of multilateralism seem to yield better results than open functional forms of multilateralism.” (p. 8)
Explanation	-

Term	Core-region multilateralism
Author	Wu Guoguang
Year	2008
Academic Discipline	International relations, foreign policy analysis
Political Statement	-
Geographic / Institutional Basis	Asia
Source	Wu Guoguang. 2008. “Multiple levels of multilateralism: The rising China in the turbulent world” in China turns to multilateralism: Foreign policy and regional security, ed. Wu Guoguang and Helen Lansdowne, London: Routledge.
Citation	“Multilateralism effectively helps China to present to its smaller neighbours a less threatening and more cooperative face of its power, while it enhances equally, if not more than bilateralism, Beijing’s interest and influence and to resolve some real problems perplexing the states involved.” (p. 270)
Explanation	In emphasizing the regional focus of the concept Wu Guoguang explains that this has amounted to a strategy of “befriending, pacifying, and enriching neighbours” (youlin, mulin, fulin, p. 269) as a means to pre-empt/precipitously address concerns over power political implications.

Term	Crystallising multilateralism
Author	Peterson, John/ Aspinwall, Mark/ Damro, Chad & Boswell, Christina
Year	2008
Academic Discipline	Political Science
Political Statement	-
Geographic / Institutional Basis	European Union/ UK/ University of Edinburgh
Source	Peterson, J., Aspinwall, M., Damro, C. and Boswell, C. 2008. The Consequences of Europe: Multilateralism and the New Security Agenda, Europa Institute Mitchell Working Paper, Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh, Europa Institute, 3/08, www.law.ed.ac.uk/mitchellworkingpapers/papers.aspx.
Citation	“In crystallising multilateralism, new international and international organisations are emerging (such as judicial intervention and the International Criminal Court or cooperation on global warming in the post-Kyoto era)” (p.8) and “new international rules and organisations are in the process of being established” (p.9).
Explanation	-

Term	Democracy-enhancing multilateralism
Author	Keohane, Robert O./ Macedo, Stephen & Moravscik, Andrew
Year	2009
Academic Discipline	Political Science; primary theoretical school: Liberal Institutionalism
Political Statement	-
Geographic / Institutional Basis	USA
Source	Keohane, Robert O./ Macedo, Stephen & Moravscik, Andrew. 2009. “Democracy- Enhancing Multilateralism”, International Organization 63, Winter 2009, pp. 1-31.
Citation	“Participation in multilateral institutions – defined broadly to include international organisations, regimes and networks governed by formal international agreements – can enhance the quality of domestic democracy […] under some plausible circumstances”. (p. 1-2)
Explanation	Keohane & al. argue that multilateral institutions can enhance the quality of national democratic processes and articulate standards and conditions under which this can take place, thus making proposals for the reform of international institutions.

Term	Dysfunctional multilateralism
Author	van Oudenaren, John
Year	2003
Academic Discipline	Political Science
Political Statement	-
Geographic / Institutional Basis	USA
Source	van Oudenaren, John. 2003. “What is Multilateral?” In Policy Review, No 117, pp. 33-47, see also www.hoover.org/publications/policyreview/3449941.html.
Citation	“[…] the phenomenon of what might be called “dysfunctional multilateralism” – forms of international cooperation and organization that affect the decision-making calculus of states (in ways that realists tend to discount) but are at best suboptimal and at worst counterproductive from the perspective of international order (a perspective that liberal institutionalists tend to disregard).” (p. 39) “Multilateralism […] can become dysfunctional when states or group of states systematically abuse the available opt-out and escape clauses.” (p. 40)
Explanation	-

Term	Economic multilateralism
Author	Gardner, Richard N.
Year	1956
Academic Discipline	History / International Political Economy
Political Statement	-
Geographic / Institutional Basis	USA
Source	Richard N. Gardner. 1956. Sterling-Dollar Diplomacy: Anglo-American Collaboration in the Reconstruction of Multilateral Trade, Oxford: The Clarendon Press.
Citation	“a system in which barriers to trade and payments are reduced to moderate levels and made non-discriminatory in their application” (p. 13)
Explanation	This recounts the Anglo-American formulation of the principles of a post-war economic order, seen as an essential complement to a collective security system after the damage wrought by the Great Crash of 1929 and the depression of the 1930s. It can be described as the beginning of economic multilateralism.

Term	Effective Multilateralism
Author	European Council
Year	2003
Academic Discipline	-
Political Statement	European Council Declaration
Geographic / Institutional Basis	European Union
Source	European Council: A Secure Europe in A Better World. European Security Strategy, Brussels, 12 December 2003, www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cmsUpload/78367.pdf
Citation	“AN INTERNATIONAL ORDER BASED ON EFFECTIVE MULTILATERALISM In a world of global threats, global markets and global media, our security and prosperity increasingly depend on an effective multilateral system. The development of a stronger international society, well functioning international institutions and a rule-based international order is our objective.” (p. 9)
Explanation	-

Term	Epistemic multilateralism
Author	Krause, Joachim
Year	200
Academic Discipline	Political science; primary theoretical school: Realism
Political Statement	-
Geographic / Institutional Basis	Germany
Source	Krause, Joachim. 2008. "The Crisis of Multilateralism.” European Liberal Forum. Helsinki. www.isuk.org/1/wp-content/uploads/2009/06/crisisofmultilateralism_2008-06-16.pdf
Citation	“Epistemic multilateralism […] is the quasi-permanent co-operation that exists among like-minded states in a broad range of fields, such as the European Union (EU) and, to a lesser degree, the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO). Epistemic multilateralism is usually credited as being the most effective one.” (p. 8-9)
Explanation	-

Term	Exclusive executive multilateralism
Author	Rittberger, Volker
Year	2008
Academic Discipline	Political Science; regime thoeries
Political Statement	-
Geographic / Institutional Basis	-
Source	Rittberger, Volker. 2008. “Global Governance: From ‘Exclusive’ Executive Multilateralism to Inclusive Multipartite Institutions,” Tübinger Arbeitspapiere zur Internationalen Politik und Friedensforschung, no. 52.
Citation	Exclusive executive multilateralism is …“an organizational structure characterized by non-public negotiations and bargaining between national government representatives, which are consciously isolated from public scrutiny or participation.” (p. 2)
Explanation	Examples of exclusive executive multilateralism are UN-Security Council, International Atomic Energy Council (IAEA) and G7/G8, in which non-state actors have only informal access.

Term	Institutionalised multilateralism
Author	Peterson, John/ Aspinwall, Mark/ Damro, Chad & Boswell, Christina
Year	2008
Academic Discipline	Political Science
Political Statement	-
Geographic / Institutional Basis	European Union/ UK/ University of Edinburgh
Source	Peterson, J., Aspinwall, M., Damro, C. and Boswell, C. 2008. The Consequences of Europe: Multilateralism and the New Security Agenda, Europa Institute Mitchell Working Paper, Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh, Europa Institute, 3/08, www.law.ed.ac.uk/mitchellworkingpapers/papers.aspx.
Citation	“In institutionalised multilateralism, rules-based international organisations are established (such as the World Trade Organisation for global trade).” (p.8)
Explanation	-

Term	New multilateralism
Author	Africa Progress Panel
Year	2009
Academic Discipline	-
Political Statement	-
Geographic / Institutional Basis	Geneva
Source	‘New Multilateralism’, Africa Progress Panel Secretariat Publication, foreword by Kofi Annan. www.africaprogresspanel.org/pdf/MULTILATERALISM-PAMPHLET-FINAL300309-eversion.pdf.
Citation	“This publication brings together eminent individuals who argue that a new and improved form of multilateralism is needed to allow the developing world and Africa in particular, to overcome these bleak prospects. They argue that Africa cannot afford to watch from the sidelines as the global crisis unfolds. Instead, they call for its leaders to use this opportunity and push for substantial reforms of the world’s governance structure to make it more responsive, supportive and ultimately effective” (Kofi Anan, Foreword).
Explanation	This document was produced by the Africa Progress Panel Secretariat prior to the G20 Summit in London, April 2009, proposing a new form of multilateralism as the only solution to the current financial crisis.

Term	New multilateralism
Author	UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon
Year	2009
Academic Discipline	-
Political Statement	Address
Geographic / Institutional Basis	United Nations
Source	UN News Centre, “Today’s challenges require global leadership, new multilateralism - Ban”, 21 May 2009, www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp
Citation	“We need new vision, bold action, powerful partnerships for enduring peace and prosperity. That is why I call for a new multilateralism. A new multilateralism should focus on delivering global goods: freedom from hunger, health and education and security from terror or the threat of Armageddon”. "…a multilateralism that couples power with pragmatic principle, recognizing that in our interconnected world the well-being of any one nation depends, to an increasing degree, upon the well-being of all."
Explanation	-

Term	New multilateralism
Author	Ikenberry, G. John
Year	2003
Academic Discipline	Political Science
Political Statement	-
Geographic / Institutional Basis	USA / Princeton University
Source	Ikenberry, G. John. 2003. “Is American Multilateralism in Decline?”, Perspectives on Politics, Vol. 1, no.3: 533-550.
Citation	“The “new [US] unilateralism” is in part a product of the “new multilateralism,” which offers fewer opportunities for the United States to exercise political control over others and fewer ways to escape the binding obligations of the agreements.” (p.534) “[…] Washington’s resistance to new multilateral agreements has something to do with the new type of multilateralism. The older multilateralism came with escape clauses, veto rights, and weighted voting mechanisms that allowed the United States and other major states to protect their interests and gave room for maneuvering. The new multilateralism is more legally binding in character.” (p.544)
Explanation	The ‘new multilateralism’, as described by Ikenberry (2003; 2007), is more legally binding than earlier versions. It necessitates more concessions on the part of states. Previous forms of multilateralism were more flexible and accommodating to the interests of major players. Often, they contained provisions for reservations, exemptions, veto powers or voting mechanisms. Thus, they recognised the power of major states in the international order and offered them relatively unthreatening cooperation.

Term	Open functional multilateralism
Author	Krause, Joachim
Year	2008
Academic Discipline	Political science; primary theoretical school: realism
Political Statement	-
Geographic / Institutional Basis	Germany
Source	Krause, Joachim. 2008. "The Crisis of Multilateralism.” European Liberal Forum. Helsinki. www.isuk.org/1/wp-content/uploads/2009/06/crisisofmultilateralism_2008-06-16.pdf
Citation	“Open functional multilateralism […] deals mainly under the UN umbrella with military and non-security-related aspects of international life. The agenda is, in principle, open ended […]. Open functional multilateralism is based on the notion that states might prefer to solve common problems in a multilateral way.” (p. 8)
Explanation	-

Term	Selective multilateralism
Author	Chayes, Antonia
Year	2008
Academic Discipline	International law
Political Statement	-
Geographic / Institutional Basis	USA
Source	Chayes, Antonia. 2008. "How American Treaty Behavior Threatens National Security." International Security 33 (1): 45-81.
Citation	“‘Selective multilateralism’ – or in Richard Haass’s words, ‘multilateralism à la carte’ – is perhaps a more accurate description of U.S. treaty behaviour than unilateralism. The United States does not oppose international agreements, but rather adheres to those obligations that serve its perceived interests and rejects other obligations that do not.” (p. 47)
Explanation	-

Term	Selective multilateralism
Author	Wu, Guoguang and Lansdowne, Helen
Year	2008
Academic Discipline	International relations, foreign policy analysis
Political Statement	-
Geographic / Institutional Basis	-
Source	Wu, Guoguang and Lansdowne, Helen. 2008. “International multilateralism with Chinese characteristics: Attitude changes, policy imperatives and regional impacts” in: Wu, Guoguang and Lansdowne, Helen (eds.), China turns to multilateralism: Foreign policy and regional security, London: Routledge.
Citation	“[…] so as to increase its multilateral involvement, China manages to strengthen its status as a regional, and even a world, power that is not strictly bound to multilateral coordination.” (p. 6)
Explanation	The central thrust of selective multilateralism is the actors preference for choice – allowing defensive unilateralism, purposeful bilateralism, strategic and pragmatic multilateralism.

Term	Pax universalis
Author	Bush, George H. W. (Sr.)
Year	1991
Academic Discipline	-
Political Statement	Speech at the UN General Assembly
Geographic / Institutional Basis	USA
Source	George H. W. Bush, speech at the UN General Assembly, 24.09.1991, www.un.org/ga/
Citation	“Finally, you may wonder about America's role in the new world I have described. Let me assure you, the United States has no intention of striving for a pax americana. However, we will remain engaged. We will not retreat and pull back into isolationism. We will offer friendship and leadership. In short, we seek a pax universalis, built upon shared responsibilities and aspirations.” (p. 83)
Explanation	-

Term	Partnership
Author	Kotzé, Hennie & Steyn, Carly
Year	2003
Academic Discipline	African Studies
Political Statement	-
Geographic / Institutional Basis	South Africa
Source	Kotzé, Hennie & Steyn, Carly. 2003. African elite perspectives: AU and NEPAD. Johannesburg: Konrad Adenauer Stiftung.
Citation	“[Partnership] proposes increased integration and cooperation within the African continent itself. It also proposes increased cooperation among various tiers of society, i.e. the business sector, government and civil society. Lastly, it proposes a partnership with the developed world in order to realise the goals of sustainable development and integration into the global economy.” (p.93)
Explanation	-

Term	Three-level games
Author	Patterson, Lee Ann
Year	1997
Academic Discipline	Political science; primary theoretical school: liberal institutionalism
Political Statement
Geographic / Institutional Basis	USA
Source	Patterson, Lee Ann. 1997. “Agricultural policy reform in the European Community: a three-level game analysis” International Organization 51(1): 135-165.
Citation	“… the empirical value of Robert Putnam’s two-level game model (is demonstrated) when it is expanded to consider the simultaneous negotiations at three levels: the domestic level, the EC level, and the international level.” (p. 135)
Explanation	The concept of “three-level game” is an extension of Robert Putnam’s seminal paradigm of a “two-level” game. It was developed to better describe the kind of intra-regional bargaining that characterizes political behaviour within the European Union. The concept has some affinity with the notion of “multi-level governance”. See also Deutsch, Hans Günter (1999). The Politics of Freer Trade in Europe: Three-level games in the Common Commercial, Policy of the EU, 1985-1997. Berlin: Lit Verlag.

Term	Tianxia ('all under heaven')
Author	-
Year	ancient Chinese concept
Academic Discipline	-
Political Statement	-
Geographic / Institutional Basis	China
Source	-
Citation	-
Explanation	‘Tianxia’ or ‘all under heaven’ is essentially an ancient Chinese world view, reflecting a tradition of cosmic universalism the term the term equates to universal recognition and acceptance of social and political hierarchy, shaped by the provision of moral example by those at the apex of the hierarchy, and emulated by those subordinate. The term as Chen Zhimin and Jian Junbo point out is tempered by a commitment to diversity (hu er bu tong). The term is sometimes equated with the concept of civilization-based empire (see for example Wang Gungwu. 2008. “China and the international order: Some historical perspectives” in ed. Wang Gungwu and Zhjeng Yongnian, China and the new international order, London: Routledge). Historically, the term provided a framework for Chinese views of the world and peripheral states in terms of tributary relationships.

Term	Two-level games
Author	Putnam, Robert
Year	1988
Academic Discipline	Political Science; primary thoeretical school: liberal institutionalism
Political Statement	-
Geographic / Institutional Basis	USA
Source	Putnam, Robert. 1988. “Diplomacy and domestic politics: the logic of two-level games.” International Organization 42(3): 427-460.
Citation	“The politics of many international negotiations can usefully be conceived as a two-level game. At the national level, domestic groups pursue heir interests by pressuring the government to adopt favorable policies and politicians seek power by constructing coalitions amongst those groups. At the international level, national governments seek to maximize their own ability to satisfy domestic pressures, while minimizing the adverse consequences of foreign developments.” (p. 432)
Explanation	The notion of “two-level games” is an analogy concerning the interrelated “tables” in international negotiations but it can be usefully applied to describe the links between domestic politics and international relations. Putnam’s article is reproduced in an edited volume providing a series of case studies using the concept (Peter Evans, Harold Jacobson and Robert Putnam (eds). 1993. Double-Edged Diplomacy: International Bargaining and Domestic Politics. Berkeley CA: University of California Press).

Alliance of Democratic States (Daalder & Lindsay)

ASEAN way (Acharya)

Bi-multilateralism (Smith & Xie)

Coalition of the willing / Coalition of nations (Bush Jr.)

Conference Diplomacy (Berridge)

Effective Partnership (European Commission)

Harmonious world (Hu Jintao)

Inclusive multipartite institutions (Rittberger)

Interregionalism (Hänggi et al.)

Minilateralism (Mastanduno)

Minilateralism (Naím)

Multilateral (Draper)

Multilateralism:

• [definition] Clark
• [definition] Ikenberry
• [definition] Keohane
• [definition] Martin
• [definition] MERCURY
• [definition] Ruggie
• advanced executive (Rittberger)
• aspirant (Peterson et al.)
• assertive (Albright)
• assertive (Giddens)
• closed functional (Krause)
• core-region (Wu)
• crystallising (Peterson et al.)
• democracy-enhancing (Keohane et al.)
• dysfunctional (van Oudenaren)
• economic (Gardner)
• effective (European Council)
• epistemic (Krause)
• exclusive executive (Rittberger)
• institutionalised (Peterson et al.)
• new (Africa Progress Panel)
• new (Ban Ki-moon)
• new (Ikenberry)
• open functional (Krause)
• selective (Chayes)
• selective (Wu & Lansdowne)

Partnership (Kotzé & Steyn)

Pax universalis (Bush Sr.)

Three-level games (Patterson)

Tianxia ('all under heaven')

Two-level games (Putnam)